After having lasted a good century, the Pax Franca, or the Frankish Peace, came to an end in the middle of the 9th century. Between 830 and 850 CE, Norsemen invaded the Limburgish region, followed by another wave of Norse invasions between 879 and 884 CE. In 881, Maastricht was attacked, plundered and partially destroyed. The Norsemen’s trail of pillage and destruction through the Rhine and Limburgish Meuse region lasted until 891.

The discord within the Frankish Empire as a result of the power struggle between Charlemagne’s three grandsons – Lothar, Louis the German and Charles the Bald – facilitated the Norse invasions. From the ascension of Lothar II until his death in 859 CE, war raged in Lorraine. In 870, the Treaty of Meersen identified the Meuse as the border line between the East and West Frankish Kingdoms. As a result, the area of Limburg on the eastern shores of the Meuse became part of the East Frankish Kingdom and the area on the western shores became part of the West Frankish Kingdom.

In 880, the Treaty of Ribemont stipulated that Lower Lorraine, including Limburg, was to become part of the East Frankish Kingdom, which later became the Kingdom of Germany. Although this led to East Frankish rule of the heartland of the Frankish Empire, the West Franks nevertheless claimed it as their heritage. By appointing dukes, the East Frankish emperors tried to expand their influence in Lower Lorraine at the expense of the region’s local nobles. The Lorrainians desperately tried to retain their independence by pledging allegiance to the West Frankish king, who would allow them more freedom than the East Frankish ruler. Although many other events took place during this period of time, the desire to establish its own place in Europe was typical of Lorraine. During the whole of its existence, Lorraine did not want to become part of either the West Frankish or East Frankish Kingdom, but instead tried to carve out an independent place between the two.

When Louis the Child died in 911 CE, the Low Lorraine nobles first pledged their allegiance to the West Frankish King Charles III, also known as Charles the Simple. However, they rejoined the East Frankish Kingdom, where Henric I ruled as king, in 925 CE. From this point onwards, Lower Lorraine – and Limburg – became part of the Kingdom of Germany. Many powerful Lorraine families tried to establish their rule in Lower Lorraine or influence its future, but none of their efforts resulted in political or regional unity. The only form of unity to be found was created by the Roman Catholic Church, which had made Limburg a diocese of Liège.

During this time, the political situation in Limburg was fundamentally different from that in the northern Low Countries. Holland, Zeeland, Guelders and Utrecht became counties, thereby forming the basis for the Republic of the United Provinces and subsequently the provinces of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. However, Limburg remained in political turmoil until the end of the 18th century, with continuously changing borders and other nations trying to claim sovereignty over Limburgish regions.

Notwithstanding its internal discord, Lorraine came to be seen as a separate state by the end of the 11th century, similar to other regions in Europe, such as the Provence, Aquitaine, Brittany, Scotland, England, Normandy, France, Burgundy, Lombardy and Apulia.

References
Boeren, P. C., Frankische Tijd en Vroege Middeleeuwen, in: Limburgs Verleden, deel II, 1-26.
Boone, de, W. J., De Franken, in: Limburgs Verleden, deel I, 165-188.
Hardenberg, H., De Romeinse tijd, in: Limburgs Verleden, deel I, Maastricht, 1960, 117-164.
Jappe Alberts, W., Geschiedenis van de beide Limburgen, deel I, Van Gorcum Assen, 1972.
Jappe Alberts, W., Oorsprong en geschiedenis van de Limburgers, Elsevier Amsterdam, 1981.
Linssen, C. A. A., Historische opstellen over Lotharingen en Maastricht in de Middeleeuwen, Van Gorcum Assen/Maastricht, 1985.
Robinson, O. W., Old English and its closest relatives; A survey of the earliest Germanic languages, Stanford University Press, 1992.
Schaetzen, de, Ph., De Romeinen in de Haspengouw, Limburgs Haspengouw 1951, 47-76.
Ubachs, P. J. H., Handboek voor de geschiedenis van Limburg, Verloren Hilversum, 2000.