The Meuse-Rhine region, which includes present-day Limburg, is regarded as one of the most important European literary landscapes of the 12th century. This position is due not so much to the region’s own innovative achievements, but rather to its position as a cultural crossroads. Important literary motifs were adopted from Romance culture and passed on to the adjacent Germanic linguistic region to the south, southeast and east. However, Limburgish literature was also passed on to Flanders and Brabant.

In the 11th and 12th centuries, book production was at such a high level in the Limburgish Meuse region that it was unrivalled elsewhere in the Low Countries and even the rest of Northern Europe. Limburgish monasteries produced manuscripts that were masterpieces of European craftsmanship. Other cultural expressions, including architecture, iconography, ivory work and painting, all related to the religious life, were of the same high quality. Contrary to other literary expressions, only a few examples of lyric poetry – in particular, courtly lyric poetry – came from the Meuse-Rhine region.

In this context, the work of Henric van Veldeke is very highly regarded within the German tradition. The author was named after his place of origin. Researchers currently believe that Veldeke was in the vicinity of Hasselt. It is likely that Henric van Veldeke grew up surrounded by nobles and clergy. He would probably have received a religious education – not uncommon for someone with his background and widely available throughout the Limburgish Meuse region during this era. Veldeke’s works demonstrate his fluency in Latin and the linguistic precursors to French and German. Current research suggests that Veldeke was a secular priest, who worked as a clerk for several lords, writing literature and drafting government documents.
Veldeke has left us with a relatively homogeneous oeuvre that contains little variation. He was one of the few Middle Age troubadours who wrote both epic and lyrical pieces, as one of the most creative and prolific poets of the time. Limburgish was Veldeke’s mother tongue, but many of his works were passed down in dialects much closer to Dutch and German. In Dutch and German literature Veldeke is therefore also seen as an ancestor of their literary tradition.

In all likelihood, Veldeke had already commenced work on his Eneas prior to 1170, with the epilogue dating to somewhere before 1190. His source of inspiration was the Roman d’Eneas, which dates from around 1160. Consequently, the Limburgish Meuse region must have maintained close cultural ties with the Anglo-Norman royal court. Prior to the work’s completion, Veldeke lent the manuscript to the Countess of Cleve, and it was subsequently stolen by a Thuringian noble. Nine years later, Veldeke was invited by Herman of Thuringia to come to his court and complete the book. At present, it remains unclear whether the novel was originally written in Limburgish.

One of Veldeke’s better known songs is about the courtly lover Tristan and deals primarily with Tristan’s all embracing love for Queen Iseut (Isolde). Tristan was sent to Ireland to bring Isolde as a bride for his king, but during their return voyage by sea, Tristan and Isolde accidentally drank from a love chalice, thus becoming joined forever.

Veldeke’s many talents are also demonstrated in his Sintervaoslegende (‘Hagiography of Saint Servatius’), which shows his mastery of the hagiographic genre, apart from his epic and lyrical skills. Containing more than 6,000 verses, the Sintervaoslegende surpasses all hagiographies that had been written in the local vernacular until then. The work is divided into two lengthy chapters of approximately 3,000 verses each. The first chapter presents an overview of the life of Saint Servatius and the second recounts the many miracles Saint Servatius performed after his death.
The oldest known version, of which only fragments exist, dates back to around 1220. Veldeke wrote the Sintervaoslegende in Limburgish, albeit a more general form of Limburgish, which avoided the use of any clearly identifiable local Limburgish dialects.
In addition, High German sources were the only sources that were available for Veldeke’s lyrical efforts, yet the use of his native Limburgish frequently shines through. This reveals that Veldeke composed his poetry in Limburgish for a Limburgish audience; this original work was subsequently rendered into High German for another audience.

The tradition of writing works in Limburgish within Limburg in the 12th century continued after Veldeke – that much is known. Although few texts have been found, a document by the Bishop of Liège from 1202 indicates that all books suspected of heresy in relation to the Holy Scripture were to be confiscated. A very clear reference states that such books include works written in the Germanic local vernacular, i.e. what would now be called Limburgish. Apart from Limburg no other literary texts are known from other regions of the Low Countries at this time. The earliest literary texts from Brabant date a good century after Veldeke’s time.

D’n Trierse Floyris – one of the earliest courtly novels – is one of the few other Limburgish texts from the 12th century; it originated in the vicinity of Roermond and Heinsberg. Adapted from the Romantic tradition, the novel recounts the lives of Floryis and Blancheflor, Charlemagne’s grandparents. The Frankish Emperor had become a recurrent literary subject in his own right within the literature of the Meuse-Rhine region. The fragment of D'n Trierse Floyris is the oldest piece of this story that has been discovered within the Germanic linguistic area.

De reis vaan Sint-Brandaon (‘The Journey of Saint Brendan) is a miracle story from the 12th century and a mixture of various parts: spiritual and mundane, heroic and religious, informative and amusing, but also sacred and playful. Sailors’ tales, a Homeric Odyssey story, Old Irish sea journeys, visions from other worlds, and legends, as well as passages adapted from medieval books, were all woven into a single narrative. The text is an archetypical sea journey story, where the protagonist – Abbot Brendan – travels across the seas on a voyage of self-discovery and searches for the meaning of life. The story is rooted in several rich traditions and refers to the holy Irishman Brendan (Brénainn) of Clonfert, who died at almost 100 years of age in 575 CE, and about whom many tales were told.

More fragments of manuscripts written in Limburgish are available from the 13th century. The Limbörgsen Aiol (‘The Limburgish Aiol’) comprises fragments dating most probably from after 1220. This epic text recounts one of the many stories about the Frankish Emperor Charlemagne and must have been written by a contemporary of Henric van Veldeke. The text is written in the Limburgish of that time, possibly as spoken in the vicinity of Venlo. Originally, the work must have contained close to 150 pages or 10,000 verses. The French source text is thought to have been composed around 1170 and the first Limburgish translation would have appeared in the 12th century. These fragments in translation are the oldest version that have been found so far, much older than Dutch, Italian and Spanish renditions. The author, as well as the translator, remain unknown.

Fragments originating from the north of Limburg show the use of Limburgish as a professional language or the language of scientific treatises in what are known as the Limbörgse Gezoondheidsregels (‘Limburgish Health Guidelines’). These were written in the margins of a Latin calendar from 1253.
The Oonderriens Moraolbook (‘Lower Rhinean Book of Morals’) was written in the region of Venlo and dates from between 1270 and 1290. Unlike the above-mentioned texts, this text is not a story describing courtly love or religious heroes and their lives. Instead, the book is a compendium of moral views, reflections and quotes by scholars in this particular field, providing a written Limburgish expression of abstract and theoretical rules. The book can be traced back to the Moralium dogma philosophorum, which is thought to have been written by Guillaume de Conches, of the cathedral school of Chartres and the Sorbonne, and dates back to around 1120. The main sources for this work were not so much Christian authors as classical Roman writers, such as Cicero and Seneca, amongst others.
Henric en Claredamye (‘Henric and Claredamye’) is another fragment that has survived from the 13th century and which was written in a Limburgish typical of the region around Venlo. The text can be classified as a romantic novel about an adventurous crusader; the story was already known in the field of Romance linguistics in the 12th century. The novel recounts the return of Henric of Normandy from the East, where he had won the heart of Claredamye, daughter of the King of Mecca.

Numerous other Limburgish texts have survived from the 13th century, although these are often nothing more than fragments. The Lunder Leder/Gediechter (‘Lunder Songs/Poems’), from the beginning of the 13th century, which have love as their main theme, are also regarded as Limburgish, even though some Brabantian and Guelderian language is used. ’t Leve vaan Sinte Lutgart (‘The Life of Saint Lutgart’) by Willem van Afflighem, as well as what is known as the Limbörgs Leve van Jezus (‘The Limburgish Life of Jesus’), were both written in the last quarter of the 13th century (1275-1300). A 13th-century fragment of a French story of chivalry was recently found in Munich and describes a battle between the troops of Charlemagne and the Saracens. The linguistic origin of this text seems to have been somewhere in Limburg. Furthermore, the Mestreechter Fragmint (‘Maastricht Fragment’), of approximately 1280, can be seen as an early example of a love letter.

De Limbörgse Sermoene (‘The Limburgish Sermons’), which probably date to around 1300, are a collection of 48 handwritten sermons and treatises that once formed part of a bundle of 500 manuscripts and earlier editions. These are the oldest known sermons within the Limburgish linguistic area and probably emanate from the southeastern Meuse region, although some researchers believe their origin to be closer to the area around St. Truiden. These texts were in all likelihood derived from texts written in Middle Franconian and Latin, although their actual origins remain unknown. Two-thirds of the 48 handwritten texts survive in the form of a translation of 32 of the original 39 German Sankt Georgener Predigten (‘Saint Georg’s Sermons’), with an additional 7 sermon texts that describe the life and death of Jesus Christ. To these 7 sermon texts, which appear to be a self-contained whole, 9 other manuscripts were also added. Although these latter manuscripts show less internal coherence, an underlying connecting theme of romantic mysticism – expressing a burning passion for Our Lord – can be observed. These sermons include the Mestreecher Passiespeul (‘Maastricht Passion Play’).

Various hagiographies – written by Willem van Afflighem in the previous century – were adapted into the Limburgish vernacular by Friar Geraert, a Franciscan friar, in approximately 1360. Around 1400, another fragment, consisting of several thousand verses about the life of Saint Trudo, the founder of the Abbey of St. Truiden, was also written in the Limburgish vernacular. At that time, the southwestern part of Limburg, and in particular the area around St. Truiden, must have been a centre for the production of hagiographic texts. Such works were also written in the local vernacular of the region that included Maastricht, Maaseik and Venray. In the 13th and 14th centuries, Limburg was known as an area that produced numerous hagiographies. In the last quarter of the 14th century, another small hagiography written in Limburgish originated in Maastricht, entitled Mestreechter Heilegeleve (‘Maastricht Hagiography’). Written in the Begaordehoes St. Bartolomeus (‘Begard House Saint Bartholomew’) in Maastricht, the text narrates the lives of eleven saints, including four Limburgish saints, i.e. Saint Servatius, Saint Trudo, Saint Lambertus and Saint Rombout.

Around 1400, a Carthusian monk prepared a compendium with meditations about the life of Christ, entitled Bonaventura-Ludolfiaonse Leve vaan Zjezus (‘Bonaventura-Ludolphian Life of Jesus’). The Meditationes de passione Christi by Jordanus von Quedlinburg, which describe the suffering of Jesus according to the Gospel of John, are another example of such meditations. Many Limburgish renditions of this text have survived in the region.

By the middle of the 15th century, translations into the local vernacular of works such as the Imitatio Christi by Thomas von Kempen became available. Various copies of this text originated in Limburg from such places as the Begaordehoes St. Bartolomeus in Maastricht, the Jerusalem Convent in Venray, the Convent of Saint Agnes in Maaseik, the Norbertine Convent in Houthem and the Emmaus Convent of the Tertiaries in Roermond.

A Limbörgs Beibook (‘Limburgish Prayer Book) was produced in the northern part of East Limburg in the 15thcentury. The approximately 400 prayers must have been compiled by a single author and are handwritten in his or her local vernacular. The language used is clearly Limburgish, although slightly influenced by the language of the surrounding areas. The prayers were probably compiled inside a monastery or convent, but their exact origin remains unknown. The book consists of a rich and systematic classification of prayers, ranging from a prayer to the Holy Trinity to one addressing Our Heavenly Father; it also includes prayers of passion, prayers about the Five Wounds of Christ, the Seven Bleedings of Christ, prayers to be said during mass, when receiving the Holy Sacrament, and prayers for confession and forgiveness, as well as prayers addressed to Our Lady and various popular saints, towards the end of the book.

The Tungerse Leder (‘Songs From Tongeren’) were contained in a compendium created at the Windesheimer Convent of ‘St. Maria ter Noot Gots’ in Tongeren during the second half of the 15th century. These songs formed part of a manuscript that included sermons, treatises and rhyming prayers – all written in Latin. The songs are of various kinds; ten of them were translated into the Limburgish vernacular of the time.

At the beginning of the 16th century, several examples of more creative approaches to texts, and in particular prayers, began to emerge from the Beguine Convent in Maaseik. Six manuscripts from this period demonstrate the literary preoccupations of these Beguines.

Songbooks written in Limburgish begin to emerge from the 16th century onwards, particularly around the northeastern border of the Meuse-Rhine region. Well-known examples of such songs include a dozen from the Venlo-Gelders Hoesbook (‘Venlo-Guelderian Home Companion’), dating from the beginning of the 16th century, as well as the Venlo-Gelderse Lederbiejeinzeumering (‘Venlo-Guelderian Song Compilation’) from the end of that same century. Love is the principal theme in these songs, which predominantly reflect medieval romantic songs. In addition, the Venlo-Gelders Hoesbook is also a source for declarations of love.

References
Israel, J. I., De Republiek 1477-1806, 5e druk, Van Wijnen Franeker, 2001.
Janssens, J. D., In de Schaduw van de Keizer; Hendrik van Veldeke en zijn tijd (1130–1230), Walburg Pers Zutphen, 2007.
Jappe Albers, W., Oorsprong en geschiedenis van de Limburgers, Elsevier Amsterdam, 1981.
Linssen, C. A. A., Historische opstellen over Lotharingen en Maastricht in de Middeleeuwen, Van Gorcum Assen/Maastricht, 1985.
Robinson, O. W., Old English and its closest relatives; A survey of the earliest Germanic languages, Stanford University Press, 1992.
Tervooren, Helmut, Van der Masen tot op den Rijn; ein Handbuch zur Geschichte der mittelalterlichen volkssprachlichen Literatur im Raum von Rhein und Maas, Historisches Verein für Geldern und Umgegend (105), 2005.
Ubachs, P. J. H., Handboek voor de geschiedenis van Limburg, Verloren Hilversum, 2000.
Vries, de, J. W., Willemyns, R., Bruger, P., Het verhaal van een taal; negen eeuwen Nederlands, Prometheus Amsterdam, 1993.
Willemyns, R., Het verhaal van het Vlaams; De geschiedenis van het Nederlands in de Zuidelijke Nederlanden, Standaard Uitgeverij Antwerpen, 2003.

http://www.ned.univie.ac.at/publicaties/taalgeschiedenis/en/anltexte.htm (28-5-2008).