The political fragmentation of Limburg following the Frankish era was least noticeable in West Limburg. Around the year 1000, the County of Loon came into existence; this included almost the whole of West Limburg, at least during the reign of Louis II of Loon around 1200. Louis II also tried to annex parts of East Limburg to his county, but here he was less successful. The dukes of Brabant and Guelders in the north, as well as the bishops of Liège in the south, had already been trying to gain control of the areas in East Limburg from the 11th century onwards. Until the 13th century, however, they would not have much luck.
At the end of the 13th century, the Limburgish War of Succession led to an intense struggle for the succession of the old Duchy of Limburg, which was largely situated on territory belonging to Liège. The interference by Brabant and Guelders, which occupied the northern Limburgish regions, meant that most of the battle took place in the area that constitutes present day Limburg. The Battle of Woeringen, on June 5, 1288, proved to be a decisive event and Brabant emerged victorious. In the wake of the Limburgish War of Succession, Brabantian politics in Limburg increasingly focused on the annexation of as much territory as possible, predominantly in the southern part of East Limburg.
Around 1200, the Duke of Brabant conquered a part of Maastricht, which was under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Liège. In 1284, the two rulers of Maastricht agreed to rule the city jointly on the basis of the Alde Caerte, a constitution for Maastricht. The result was an independent city-state, separate from all other Limburgish regions, until the time of the French revolution. Nevertheless, the fate of Maastricht would always affect that of the other Limburgish territories.
The Limburgish War of Succession hastened the downfall of Loon as an independent region. The victorious Brabantians increased their pressure on Loon, leading its nobles to ask the Bishop of Liège for support. Accordingly, the Count of Loon strengthened his ties with Liège during the first quarter of the 14th century, so as to reinforce his position against Brabant. These military expenditures led to the financial ruin of the County of Loon, which eventually came under the rule of Liège in 1366. From this point onwards, the bishops of Liège carried the title of Count of Loon, and West Limburg remained under their control.

In 1396, Brabant was annexed by Burgundy, as were the Limburgish territories previously conquered by the Brabantians, which were by then already referred to as the Landen van Overmaas or the Lands of Outremeuse. The Luikerland or Thudinie, to which West Limburg belonged, was annexed in 1468. Following their subsequent conquest of the southern Low Countries, the Burgundians also came to rule the northern Low Countries when the last independent count of Holland died in 1425. Until that time, the Low Countries had been two separate political entities, with the northern Low Countries being heavily preoccupied with the Dutch urge for dominion. The Duke of Burgundy had refrained from interfering in the Dutch battles in the north, leaving the States of Holland to their own political devices. This non-intervention policy allowed conflicts to fester in the southern Low Countries, increasing the political and economical separation between the northern and southern Low Countries.

Between 1473 and 1477, the Duke of Burgundy also occupied the Upper Quarter of Guelders, i.e. the northern and central territories of East Limburg that were under the control of Guelders. First Roermond was taken, followed by Venlo and the remaining places in the Upper Quarter. However, Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, died in battle in 1477, which led to the liberation of the Upper Quarter, Maastricht and Thudinie, including West Limburg. Once again the inhabitants of these areas, and in particular those of the Lands of Outremeuse, regained their independence. In 1478, a convention was held in Roermond, where a decision was made to resist Burgundian power politics and ask Louis XI of France and the Bishop of Liège for their support. Unfortunately, such support failed to materialise and the Upper Quarter was once again subjected to Burgundian rule. Another attempt by the inhabitants of the Upper Quarter to overthrow the Burgundians occurred near the end of the 15th century. In 1492, they managed to obtain the release of Charles of Egmond, son of the previous Duke of Guelders (who had died in battle). Charles of Egmond had been taken prisoner by the Burgundians. When his subjects had collected and paid the sum required for his release, Charles of Egmond was reinstated as successor to the Duke of Guelders. Burgundian rule was removed once again and replaced by that of the former oppressor.
However, in 1498 the Upper Quarter was subsequently invaded by the Austrian Emperor Maximillian, who also took an interest in Guelders, thereby transforming these Limburgish territories into a battleground for many years to come. When several countries entered into a continuous battle for different parts of Limburg and adjacent regions over an extended period of time, Emperor Charles V decided to intervene. The Emperor emerged as the overall victor, and, following the Treaty of Venlo in 1543, the Lower Countries became subject to his power. The Emperor also managed to unite a large area of the Lower Countries, with the exception of West Limburg and large parts of East Limburg. Accordingly, the Treaty of Venlo did not bring unity to Limburg, but neither did it lead to subordination to one single ruler. This political division of Limburg, thus separated from the other Low Countries, would last until the French revolution.

Habsburgian rule established a degree of political unity within the Low Countries, although West Limburg and part of East Limburg were still excluded. The main concentration of Habsburgian power was in Brussels, predominantly for strategic reasons in view of its proximity to France. The result was that the northern Low Countries had a different power structure than their southern counterpart, resulting in a further divide within the Low Countries.

Notwithstanding this internal division, a degree of unity was established in Limburg during the course of the 15th century. West Limburg had already been under the powerful influence of the Habsburgian government in Brussels following an agreement dating back to 1518. The Lands of Outremeuse were governed directly by Brussels, and the Treaty of Venlo in 1543 subjected the Upper Quarter of Guelders, albeit indirectly, to rule from Brussels as well. The outcome was a modest political union between the Upper Quarter of Guelders and the Lands of Outremeuse. Roermond became a leading centre for the territories under the rule of Guelders and the Lands of Outremeuse. Moreover, greater unity was also established in terms of religion. Although the Limburgish territories had been under the auspices of the Diocese of Liège for some time, increased unity within the church organisation would occur from the 15th century onwards.

Another significant factor was that the areas in Limburg under Guelderian rule, outside of Venlo, joined forces against the Guelderian areas in Guelders during a power struggle that took place in Guelders in the mid-15th century. The conflict between Arnold, Duke of Guelders, and his son Adolf, saw Roermond side with the Duke and Guelders with his son. When Venlo resisted, all the other Limburgish territories backed Roermond. The history of this period shows how disconnected these Limburgish regions already felt from their Guelderian counterparts. This sentiment would result in the coalescence of these Limburgish regions with the rest of Limburg.

During the 16th century, the Dutch continued their aggressive efforts for dominance in the northern Low Countries. Both military and intellectual power were used to gain control of other northern areas. An important part of the Dutch strategy consisted of attempting to create a feeling of unity, whereby Holland had to be accepted as a political, moral and cultural centre. By claiming to be descendants of the Batavians, the Dutch tried to justify their claim for dominance of the northern Low Countries, in a similar vein to the Batavians under their leader Claudius Civilus, who united other tribes under their control in order to fight the Romans. In this manner, the Dutch believed they would be able to unite other regions under their control in order to rebel against Spanish rule.

The Batavians did inhabit an area of the northern Low Countries. Yet they lived somewhere between the rivers Waal and Lek in the eastern Rhine delta, in the vicinity of present day Nijmegen. Others believe that the Batavians lived between the Rhine and the Waal, in an area now known as the Betuwe. Holland, and predominantly Kennemerland, would actually have been inhabited by the Canninefates. During the Roman era, the northern part of Holland was home to the Frisians.

The annexation of the other northern areas proved to be an enormous task for the Dutch. Charles V also faced troubled times and, in exchange for Dutch support, provided the Dutch with the opportunity to extend their influence in other northern areas. The prevalent opinion in Holland at the time was that the interests of other northern areas had to be second to those of Holland. In accordance with the increasing influence exerted by Holland, this opinion gradually became the dominant view.

Led by the Dutch, the Lower Countries' war of independence against the Habsburgs commenced in 1568. The first battles of what would become known as the Eighty Years’ War took place in Limburg. William of Orange had gathered his army on German soil and intended to conquer Brabant first. In order to do so, his troops - who acted more like bandits than soldiers – had to cross the Meuse and traverse Limburg. In the summer of 1568, the Dutch Prince was the first to invade the Lands of Outremeuse. Heerlen was burnt to the ground and the Abbey of Rolduc was plundered and set afire as well. William of Orange then pushed further into Limburg, hoping to conquer Maastricht and to establish it as his base for conquering the rest of the Lower Countries. However, the siege of Maastricht failed and his army moved on towards Sittard. Displeased with the Spanish arrest of their lord, the Count of Horn, the inhabitants of Weert joined forces with the Dutch Prince. The aim was for Dutch troops to liberate Roermond. Yet the majority of Roermond’s citizenry did not see the army as liberators and refused the soldiers entry into their city. Limburg proved to be too much of a Spanish stronghold and the Dutch army was forced to cross the river Meuse, without having taken any Limburgish territories. Stokkem, Maaseik and Hasselt also refused to join the Prince of Orange and the revolt that he had dreamed of failed to materialise. As a result, William of Orange ceased his activities and disbanded his army.
In July 1572, the Prince of Orange decided to try once more and returned to the region with his army. Venlo was able to withstand the attack by Dutch troops, but Roermond fell and was plundered. Monasteries and churches were also raided and several priests were killed. The army continued, crossing the Meuse, and occupied Weert, as well as various cities in Brabant. However, this attempt also failed and the Dutch troops moved on, to return a third time to the region under the banner of Louis of Nassau. The Land of Valkenburg was looted and the abbeys of Rolduc and Sint-Gerlach were set on fire. Roermond and Venlo offered fierce resistance and were not conquered. However, the Spanish were expecting Louis’s army, which was completely defeated during the Battle of Mookerheyde in 1574.

The social upheaval during this time was made worse by Spanish troops. Due to a lack of funds, the government in Brussels was unable to pay its troops in Limburg, who therefore began to rob civilians. As a result, support for the Spanish turned into resentment. The citizens of Maastricht deposed the Spanish troops from their city and took the city’s governance into their own hands. The Spanish recaptured the city in 1576, but left Limburg in 1577 as a result of the Eternal Edict, an agreement between the Dutch and the Spanish, which set out payment terms for the Spanish troops in connection with their departure from the Low Countries. Only Roermond remained occupied.

Nevertheless, the war between the Dutch and the Spanish raged on. The Limburgers did not particularly choose to be on either side. Although loyal to the Roman Catholic Church and to the Spanish king, they disapproved of the Spanish way of governing. However, the Limburgers were not attracted by the Dutch Orangists, either, repelled by the Orangists' Protestant faith and radicalism. In 1579, the Duke of Parma tried to regain control of the Limburgish territories and Maastricht, which was the key to the whole region. However, the Maastricht government was intent on remaining as independent as possible. The citizens’ fear of losing their freedom, which had been gained following the retreat of Spanish troops in 1577, was so strong that the city provided fierce resistance and proved very hard to conquer. The siege of Maastricht lasted more than six months before the city’s fighting spirit and resistance were finally broken, and the Spanish prevailed. The Spanish gradually continued their expansion into other Limburgish areas until control was also established in the Upper Quarter of Guelders in 1589.

Around 1590, the breach with the northern Low Countries, and in particular with the Guelders of the States, had become increasingly clear in the Upper Quarter. Already in 1600, the States of the Upper Quarter declared that they felt more closely connected to the Lower Rhine regions. The Lands of Outremeuse were characterised by a kind of particularism, which emphasised their own regional interests and rejected external influences that would make such interests second to their own. The origins of this particularism could be found in the fragmented political situation at the time. Only the influence of the government in Brussels managed to soften such particularism to a minor extent.

Between 1630 and 1640, Limburg once again became the battlefield for the Eighty Years’ War, and the loyalty of the population was with the government in Brussels. No attachment was felt towards the north, and vice versa, with the Dutch not showing any particular interest in the Limburgish territories.
Nevertheless, the Dutch conquered Maastricht and the Lands of Outremeuse in 1632, and Roermond and Venlo posed little difficulty. However, the two cities would fall back into Spanish hands again in 1637, much to the delight of the Roermond citizenry. Dutch rule was only re-established in Roermond and Venlo in 1713, when the Dutch took control over large areas of present day East Limburg. However, the Dutch received no warm welcome from the citizens of Maastricht, who withheld their support. Following their conquest of the city, the Dutch laid claim to the rights of the Lord of Brabant, one of the two Lords responsible for governing Maastricht.

Meanwhile, Spanish troops continued to roam through Limburg, while keeping their eyes on Maastricht, as well as through West Limburg, which was part of Liège and officially neutral. In 1638, various Maastricht citizens tried to repel the Dutch troops from their city by allowing Spanish soldiers to enter, so as to restore what they saw as the legitimate, lawful order, i.e. Spanish rule shared with the Prince Bishop of Liège. This failed restoration, which the Dutch viewed as a betrayal by Maastricht, demonstrated the extent of the citizens’ discontent with the Dutch occupation.
In 1632, the Dutch had annexed Maastricht through military force, much against the will of the city’s inhabitants. As a result, the government of Maastricht was forced to sign an act of capitulation and to swear loyalty to the Dutch.
In 1638, this annexation of Maastricht was still not recognised by the Spanish or any other European power. The Dutch claim on Maastricht was based only on the occupation of the city and without any actual legal foundation. Some of the citizens who had endeavoured to restore Spanish rule were people of the faith. However, as the clergy of Maastricht had never sworn loyalty to the Dutch, they could certainly not be accused of betrayal.
Nevertheless, the Dutch took the matter out of the hands of the civil tribunals and claimed jurisdiction in these cases. This was in contravention of the Alde Caerte, as well as in breach of the rights of the Joint Lord in Liège and the citizens of Maastricht. The process proved to be unfair and was presided over by judges who had agreed in advance that the accused were guilty. The accused should have been cleared of all charges and the people of Maastricht accused the judges of being executioners and murderers.

After the Peace of Munster in 1648 and the Partition Treaty of 1661, the regions in the northern Low Countries, such as East Groningen, Drenthe, Twente and the Achterhoek, became member provinces of the United Provinces. The Dutch were also given the part of Maastricht under their occupation and the conquered Lands of Outremeuse. Since the remaining part of East Limburg largely belonged to Brussels and West Limburg was controlled by Liège, these two regions remained outside of the United Provinces. From the end of the Spanish Succession War (1702-1713) and the years shortly afterwards, Limburg would be further divided into different parts, with these divisions lasting until the French revolution. The regions situated in the northern Low Countries were treated in the same manner as other territories in the north and were allowed self-governance or representation in the States General, the parliament of the Republic. This was not the case for the Limburgish regions. These were governed directly from the Hague, without having any say in their own affairs. Until the time of the French revolution, Dutch civil servants were appointed to act as administrators for the Limburgish regions, which in all but name became a Dutch colony. East Limburgers had no political rights in the state that ruled over them.

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